Nicholas I

Pope Nicholas I (Nicholas the Great)

Pope Nicholas I, often referred to as Nicholas the Great, served as the Bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from April 24, 858, until his death on November 13, 867. He is the last of three popes listed in the Annuario Pontificio with the title "the Great," alongside Leo I and Gregory I. Nicholas I is primarily remembered as a pivotal figure in the consolidation of papal authority, exerting decisive influence on the historical development of the papacy and its position among the Christian nations of Western Europe.

Life and Historical Context

Born in Rome around 800 to a distinguished family, Nicholas received an excellent education and entered the service of the Church at an early age. He was made a subdeacon by Pope Sergius II and a deacon by Pope Leo IV. His election as pope in 858 was preceded by the intervention of Louis II of Italy, who came to Rome to influence the papal election.

Nicholas I's pontificate occurred during a period of spiritual exhaustion and political uncertainty in Western Europe, marked by Muslim and Norse incursions. He presented himself as a conscientious representative of Roman primacy in the Church, committed to the vindication of Christian morality and the defense of God's law. His cooperation with Emperor Louis II and Byzantine forces temporarily stemmed the Muslim advance in southern Italy, and he also strengthened fortifications against future raids.

Major Contributions and Conflicts

Nicholas I exerted decisive influence on the historical development of the papacy. He asserted that the pope should have suzerainty over all Christians, even royalty, in matters of faith and morals. This assertion led to several significant confrontations.

He famously refused King Lothair II of Lotharingia's request for an annulment of his marriage to Teutberga. When a council pronounced in favor of the annulment, Nicholas declared the council deposed, its messengers excommunicated, and its decisions invalid. Despite pressure from the Carolingians, who laid siege to Rome, his decision held.

In ecclesiastical matters, Nicholas intervened forcefully. He excommunicated Archbishop John of Ravenna for oppressing the inhabitants of the Papal States and mistreating papal legates. He also engaged in a significant dispute with Archbishop Hincmar of Reims concerning the prerogatives of the papacy and the right of appeal to the pope.

Nicholas I also played a crucial role in marriage law enforcement. He commanded bishops to excommunicate Ingiltrud, wife of Count Boso, for leaving her husband. His involvement in the case of Judith, daughter of Charles the Bald, who married Count Baldwin I of Flanders without her father's consent, shows his concern for protecting the freedom of marriage.

Relations with the Eastern Church

Relations with the Byzantine Empire soured significantly during Nicholas I's reign due to his support for Patriarch Ignatios of Constantinople, who had been removed from his post in favor of Photius I. Nicholas contended that Photius's elevation was in violation of ecclesiastical law and sent papal legates to the Council of Constantinople in 861, who ultimately failed to follow his instructions. At a Roman synod in April 863, he excommunicated Photius.

The Eastern Church resented Nicholas's pressing of the doctrine of papal primacy, leading to conflict over doctrinal issues like the addition of the Filioque clause to the Nicene-Constantinopolitan Creed and territorial claims. A synod at Constantinople, headed by Photios, excommunicated Nicholas in 867 and rejected his claims of primacy, his efforts to convert Bulgaria to Roman obedience, and the addition of the Filioque clause. The news of this excommunication did not reach Rome until after Nicholas's death.

Bulgaria and Other Actions

Nicholas I also engaged with Prince Boris I of Bulgaria, who sought greater autonomy and guidance on Church matters. Boris sent Nicholas 106 questions, which the pope answered in his "Responsa Nicolai ad consulta Bulgarorum," and sent missionaries under papal legate Bishop Formosus. However, when Pope Adrian II rejected Boris's request for a Bulgarian archbishop, Boris turned back towards Constantinople.

In 866, Nicholas decreed that the figure of the rooster should be placed on every church as a reminder of Peter's denial of Christ. Perhaps one of his most impactful acts was ordering all Christians to abstain from eating the flesh, blood, or marrow of warm-blooded animals on Wednesdays and Fridays, which contributed to the tradition of abstaining from meat on Fridays during Lent.

Legacy

Nicholas I encouraged missionary activity and rebuilt several churches in Rome. He led a pious personal life and was highly esteemed by his contemporaries. After his death, he was regarded as a saint, with his cult re-affirmed in 1630 by Pope Urban VIII. His feast day is observed on November 13. A key question regarding his integrity is the use of forged papal decretals; research suggests he may have had general knowledge but did not base his legal views upon them.